{"id":3557,"date":"2016-02-18T22:01:48","date_gmt":"2016-02-19T03:01:48","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/svetanyc.com\/?p=3557"},"modified":"2017-06-03T10:59:28","modified_gmt":"2017-06-03T14:59:28","slug":"venice2016-1","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"http:\/\/192.168.2.119:1984\/svetanyc\/2016\/02\/venice2016-1\/","title":{"rendered":"Venice, Italy. Part I. February 2016"},"content":{"rendered":"
\u201cWhen I went to Venice, my dream became my life.\u201d – Marcel Proust<\/em><\/p>\n \u201cVenice <\/b>opens her arms to all whom others shun. She lifts up all whom others abase. She welcomes those whom others persecute. She cheers the mourner in his grief and defends the disposed and the destitute with charity and love. And so I bow to Venice with good reason. She is a living reproach to [papal] Rome.\u201d –\u00a0<\/span><\/em>Pietro Aretino in his address to Doge Andrea Gritti, 1527<\/em><\/p>\n If you have never been to Venice<\/a>, you haven\u2019t seen the most beautiful city in the World. When people ask me about my favorite place, I always tell the truth \u2013 Beirut \u2013 \u00a0because this is where my heart is. However,\u00a0I can\u2019t deny the uniqueness and charms of Venice, it is a perfect place to fall in love with and it absolutely deserves all the fuss! A truly Byzantine city built by refugees on mud banks amid the marshy lagoons of the Adriatic in the 5th century, it rose to acquire a rightful title of the Empire and to rule the seas for over a thousand\u00a0years! Successful leadership and trade brought immense wealth and\u00a0with that wealth the Venetians built a magnificent city, a stunning composition of stone and waves that still evokes wonder today, and called her \u2013 La Serenissima!<\/p>\n Strangely, I have never had an urgent desire to visit Venice, maybe because so many people have already been there and I always preferred the \u201croads less traveled\u201d. However, to mark my first anniversary of successfully completing a chemotherapy, my husband and I decided to attend a Carnevale di Venezia (Venetian Carnival<\/a>), perhaps one of the World\u2019s most famous affairs. So, in February 2016, we flew to Venice and spent 10 days there, half of which fell on a very hectic and colorful end of the Carnival and half, on a quiet and very local post-Carnival time.<\/p>\n It doesn\u2019t take long to figure out what makes Venice so special and unique \u2013 it is a fact that since the 12th-14th centuries, when the success\u00a0of the Venetian Empire was celebrated in art and architecture throughout the city, very little of the essential fabric of Venice has been altered. The city\u2019s sounds are still those of footsteps and the cries of boatmen. The same streets, without any sight of modern traffic lights, are still trodden. It is, as if living in those times! So come and succumb to the magic of this improbable place whose streets are full of water and where the glories of the past are evident and alive at every turn.<\/p>\n <\/a><\/p>\n Literature.<\/strong><\/p>\n History.<\/strong><\/p>\n In the 5th century A.D., at the head of the Adriatic Sea, the lush plains and hills of the Veneto were hard hit by successive waves of Germanic<\/a> and Hun<\/a> invasions, for they stood at the crossroads of the eastern and western halves of the broken Roman empire<\/a>. In the old days of the Pax Romana this area had been one of great beauty and wealth. Patavium (modern Padua) had boasted of its affluent citizens who reaped rich profit from the wool and wine afforded by the verdant countryside. Noble Aquileia, the \u201ceagle city\u201d, was a place of opulence with heavy fortified walls surrounding magnificent forums, palaces, monuments, and harbors. Its markets and homes spilled over with every luxury and delicacy that a vast empire could afford. But in 452 Attila the Hun<\/a> came to Aquileia\u2026. A few survivors of this devastation searched for refuge but found none. Where could one flee when even Rome itself was in danger? With no secure retreat on the mainland, ragged bands of refugees made their way to the marshes of the nearby lagoon, a brackish hideaway between the land and the Adriatic sea. They loaded their families and what possessions they could scrounge onto boats and rowed out to the sandy islands of a new watery world. There they found safety from the barbarians. There, they hoped, they could survived the end of their world.\u00a0Although they could never have known it, the desperate men, women, and children in those lonely boats were the founders of one of history\u2019s most remarkable cities. From an archipelago of sand, trees, and marsh they would bring forth the extraordinary beauty that is Venice \u2013 a city unlike any other. It didn\u2019t happen all at once or easily. For centuries the lagoon remained a collection of small island communities. Even after settlements began to cluster around Rialto, Venice was still a place of wood and mud. But that, too, would change. By the 13th century Venice was no longer simply a town built on the water, it had become western Europe\u2019s second largest city with a maritime empire that stretched across the Mediterranean Sea. Venice and wealth would become hindered concepts. (Some late Roman sources reveal the existence of fishermen on the islands in the original marshy lagoons. They were referred to as incolae lacunae<\/i> (\u201clagoon dwellers\u201d). The traditional founding of Venice is identified with the dedication of the first church, that of San Giacomo<\/a> on the islet of Rialto<\/a> (\u201cHigh Shore\u201d) \u2014 said to have taken place at the stroke of noon on 25 March 421 \u2013 the Feast of the Annunciation<\/a>.<\/p>\n According to John the Deacon<\/a>, a Venetian chronicler writing some four centuries later, it was Patriarch Christopher of Grado who first suggested that the scattered lagoon dwellers elect a leader to help bring peace and unity to the region. In 697, we are told, the 12 tribunes elected a dux (or \u201cdoge\u201d in Venetian dialect), who was a Byzantine official with a power base in Eraclea<\/a>. Depending on the tradition one accepts, that first doge was either Paolo Lucio Anafesto<\/a> or Orso Ipato<\/a>. And so the Venetians had a leader \u2013 the first of 118 doges that would govern the city-state.<\/span><\/p>\n Orso\u2019s successor, Deusdedit<\/a>, moved his seat from Eraclea to Malamocco<\/a> in the 740s. He was the son of Orso\u00a0and represented the attempt of his father to establish a dynasty. Such attempts were more than commonplace among the doges of the first few centuries of Venetian history, but all were ultimately unsuccessful. During the reign of Deusdedit, Venice became the only remaining Byzantine possession in the north and the changing politics of the Frankish Empire<\/a> began to change the factional division of Venice as well. One faction was decidedly pro-Byzantine, with a desire to remain well-connected to the Empire. Another faction, republican in nature, believed in continuing along a course towards practical independence. The other main faction was pro-Frankish; supported mostly by clergy (in line with papal sympathies of the time), they looked towards the new Carolingian<\/a> king of the Franks, Pepin the Short<\/a>, as the best provider of defence against the Lombards. A minor, pro-Lombard, faction was opposed to close ties with any of these further-off powers and interested in maintaining peace with the neighboring Lombard kingdom, which surrounded Venice except on the seaward side. Due to the Lombard conquest of other Byzantine territories, settlement on the islands in the lagoon increased, as more refugees sought asylum there.<\/p>\n During the reign of pro-Lombard\u00a0Domenico Monegario<\/a>\u00a0(756-764), Venice changed from a fisherman\u2019s town to a port of trade and center of merchants. Shipbuilding was also greatly advanced and the pathway to Venetian dominance of the Adriatic was laid. Also during his\u00a0tenure, the first dual tribunal<\/a> was instituted \u2013 each year, two new tribunes were elected to oversee the doge and prevent abuse of power. Succeeded by pro-Byzantine\u00a0Maurizio Galbaio,<\/a>\u00a0the new doge\u2019s\u00a0long reign (764-787) vaulted Venice forward to a place of prominence not just regionally (he oversaw the expansion of Venice to the Rialto islands) but internationally, and saw the most concerted effort yet to establish a dynasty, as he was succeeded by his equally long-reigning son, Giovanni<\/a>.<\/p>\n Dynastic ambitions were shattered when the pro-Frankish faction was able to seize power under Obelerio degli Antoneri<\/a> in 804. Obelerio brought Venice into the orbit of the Carolingian Empire<\/a>. However, by calling in Charlemagne\u2019s son Pepin<\/a>\u00a0to his defence, he raised the ire of the populace against himself and was\u00a0forced to flee during Pepin\u2019s siege of Venice. The siege proved a costly Carolingian failure \u2013 it lasted six months, with Pepin\u2019s army ravaged by the diseases of the local swamps that eventually forced them to withdraw in 810. A few months later Pepin himself died, apparently as a result of a disease contracted there. In the aftermath, an agreement between Charlemagne<\/a> and the Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus<\/a> in 814 recognized Venice as Byzantine territory and granted the city trading rights along the Adriatic coast.\u00a0<\/sup><\/p>\n As the community continued to develop and as Byzantine power waned, Venice autonomy grew, leading to eventual independence. And so it was that in the midst of\u00a0this troubled medieval lagoon a republic, founded on the authority of the \u201cpeople of Venice\u201d, was born. It was the only one left in the world \u2013 and it would last for a thousand years. It grew and thrived uniquely there because Venice itself was unique. Land was scarce in that watery world, status and wealth, therefore, were based not on a landed aristocracy, but on entrepreneurial skill. The Venetians were exporting no ideology to the world, they weren\u2019t hoping to found lesser states in their own image, they had no missionary zeal. They were not great builders, like Romans, they were not fanatics, like the Spaniards. They were above all money-people \u2013 every Venetian, wrote Pope Pius II in the 15th century, was a slave to \u201cthe sordid occupation of trade\u201d.<\/p>\n The successors of Obelerio inherited a united Venice.\u00a0During the reigns of Agnello Participazio<\/a>\u00a0(811-827) and his two sons, Venice grew into its modern form. Though Eraclean by birth, Agnello was an early immigrant to Rialto and his rule\u00a0was marked by the expansion of Venice towards the sea via the construction of bridges, canals, bulwarks, fortifications, and stone buildings. During his reign, the ducal seat moved from Malamocco to the highly protected Rialto, the current location of Venice. The monastery of St. Zaccaria, the first ducal palace<\/a> and basilica di San Marco<\/a>, as well as a walled defense\u00a0between Olivolo and Rialto, were subsequently built here. Agnello was succeeded by his son Giustiniano<\/a>, who brought the body (or parts of the body) of Saint Mark the Evangelist<\/a> to Venice from Alexandria<\/a>\u00a0and made him the patron saint of Venice.<\/p>\n At that time, Venice had all the makings of an independent trading center \u2013 ports, defensible positions, leadership \u2013 but no glorious shrine to mark the city\u2019s place on the world map. So Venice did what any ambitious, God-fearing medieval city would do: it procured a patron saint. The story goes that in 828, two Venetian merchants with the help of two Greek monks, stole the relics, believed to be the body of Saint Mark, from\u00a0Alexandria (at the time controlled by the Abbasid Caliphate<\/a>) and brought them to Venice. In order to avoid Muslim custom officials, who were notified of the alleged robbery and suspected the Venetian in committing this crime, the relics were wrapped in cabbage leaves and placed\u00a0in barrels between the layers\u00a0of pork, thus preventing the inspectors from thoroughly examining the ship\u2019s cargo. Once the relics reached Venice, instead of being used to adorn the church of Grado, which claimed to possess the throne of Saint Mark, it was kept secretly by Doge\u00a0in his modest palace. Possession of Saint Mark\u2019s remains was \u201cthe symbol not of the Patriarchate of Grado, nor of the bishopric of Olivolo, but of the city of Venice.\u201d In his will, Doge Giustiniano asked his widow to build a basilica dedicated to Saint Mark, which was erected between the palace and the chapel of Saint Theodore Stratelates<\/a>, who, under Byzantine rule had been the original patron of Venice.\u00a0<\/sup>There are multiple versions of why St. Mark, in particular, was made the main religious symbol of the city\u00a0(a local legend says that\u00a0St. Mark had visited the lagoon islands and been told by an angel that his body would rest there) but none of the stories I\u2019ve researched could pass a litmus test.\u00a0After reading multiple historical accounts, I came to a conclusion\u00a0that St. Mark was chosen\u00a0simply because his relicts got into the hands of the Venetians before any other relics. The story of St. Mark\u2019s bones\u00a0wouldn\u2019t end there.\u00a0Matters came to a head in 976, when a war between the factions broke out in the streets and canals of Venice. The Morosinis and their supporters won the day, pursuing their enemies all the way to the Ducal Palace. There they set fire to houses built around the fortified structure. The fire grew into a mighty blaze that cut across the San Marco area, consuming not only the Palace, but also the wooden chapel of San Marco, the old church of St. Theodore, and some 300 other buildings. The body of St. Mark, so carefully purloined from Alexandria and installed in the newborn Venice, was forever lost in the flames. <\/span>However, even\u00a0today, every time you see a symbol of winged Lion of St. Mark holding an open book with words \u201cPax Tibi Marce Evangelista Meus\u201d written on it \u2013 know, you are either in Venice or in one of the lands, that historically belonged to Venetian Empire. And lions you will see\u2026 plenty!<\/p>\n <\/a><\/p>\n By the late 11th century Venice has become a city that scarcely resembled the muddy archipelago of islands to which Doge Angello Partecipazio had led his people in 811. It now teemed with a population of some 50,000 souls, making it the second largest city in western Europe. Within a century it would double again in size. To sustain that kind of growth in a lagoon, additional land was necessary. As rivers were filled in, marshes drained, and bridges built, parish boundaries in Venice came to separate neighborhoods (sestieri<\/em>) rather than independent island communities. Although Venetians retained their parish identities, their various patron saints, once a sign of prestige and independence, were now displaced by devotion to St. Mark, the patron of the doge and the state. It is not surprising, then, that the Venetians decided to build a new church of San Marco, one that would better reflect the wealth and prestige of their vibrant community.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n To construct a new Basilica di San Marco \u2013 the third and final version of the doge\u2019s great chapel \u2013 a battery of builders, craftsmen, and artists were hired in Constantinople during the reign of Doge Domenico Contarini<\/a> (1043-1070). The Greek architects modeled the new stone structure on the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople<\/a> \u2013 a now-lost building that had served as the burial site for emperors since the time of Constantine the Great<\/a>. San Marco was probably the first stone church to be built in Venice, and it was certainly the grandest to be found anywhere in the region, perhaps in the entire West. While stunning, the new San Marco conspicuously lacked the body of St. Mark, lost in the fire that destroyed the first church in 976. An insurmountable problem to the modern mind, perhaps, but it was nothing of the sort in the Middle Ages. If God wished to preserved the body of St. Mark, he would very well do so. After all, had he not sent his angel to foretell that the Evangelist would one day rest in Venice? A variety of stories soon developed to explain the \u201crediscovery\u201d of St. Mark\u2019s body after the dedication of his new church. In most of them, the doge, patriarch, and citizens prayed fervently to have the relics restored, now that a suitable temple had been built to house them. The body was then miraculously revealed by the falling away of plaster or stone from a wall or (in most versions) a column in the new church. Behind the broken material could be seen either the arm or the whole body of the patron saint. Even today, citizens of Venice\u00a0would ardently argue that the bones of\u00a0St. Mark are the original ones,\u00a0which I found amusing.<\/span><\/p>\n <\/a><\/p>\n From the 9th to the 12th century, Venice developed into a city state<\/a>\u00a0(the other three were Genoa<\/a>, Pisa<\/a>, and Amalfi<\/a>). Its strategic position at the head of the Adriatic made Venetian naval and commercial power almost invulnerable.\u00a0The Republic of Venice<\/a> seized a number of places on the\u00a0Dalmatian coast<\/a> of the Adriatic before 1200, mostly for commercial reasons, because pirates based there were a menace to trade. The city became a flourishing trade center between Western Europe and the rest of the world (especially the Byzantine Empire<\/a> and Asia) with a naval power protecting sea routes from Islamic piracy. The Doge began to carry\u00a0the titles of Duke of Dalmatia<\/a> and Duke of Istria<\/a>. Later mainland possessions, which extended across Lake Garda<\/a> as far west as the Adda River<\/a>, were known as the \u201cTerraferma\u201d, and were acquired partly as a buffer against belligerent neighbors, partly to guarantee Alpine trade routes, and partly to ensure the supply of mainland wheat, on which the city depended. In building its maritime commercial empire, the Republic dominated the trade in salt,\u00a0acquired control of most of the islands in the Aegean<\/a>, including Cyprus<\/a> and Crete<\/a>, and became a major power-broker in the Near East.\u00a0It was an empire of coasts and islands, distributed along the republic\u2019s trading routes to the orient and it was changing all the time. It was never, so to speak, definitive as it had no moment of completion, and Venice\u2019s possessions varied enormously in style, size and longevity. Its entire population was probably never more than 400,000, but it extended in scattered bits and pieces from the Adriatic in the west to Cyprus in the east. Venice remained closely associated with Constantinople, being twice granted trading privileges and exemption from taxes in the Eastern Roman Empire, through the so-called Golden Bulls<\/a> or \u201cchrysobulls\u201d in return for aiding the Eastern Empire to resist Norman and Turkish incursions. Those Golden Bulls were a considerable factor in the city-state\u2019s later accumulation of wealth and power serving as middlemen for the lucrative spice and silk trade that funneled through the Levant<\/a> and Egypt along the ancient Kingdom of Axum<\/a> and Roman-Indian<\/a> routes via the Red Sea.<\/p>\n By then, the institute of the Doge<\/a><\/strong>, his role, election process and duties\u00a0were very\u00a0much established.\u00a0Despite a labyrinth of regulations surrounding the doge, some of the most effective checks were informal \u2013 including a tacit consensus on the age requirement. No legal minimum for holding the office had to be enacted, since it was unthinkable that he should be young. The average age of doges at their election was 72. This reflected a general attitude toward age that made political careers in Venice culminate late in life. Thus, nobles\u00a0strove to let only tested and trusted men enter the higher office. There were long years of seasoning and observation, of service at lower posts, of diplomatic or military assignments, preceding elevation to the government\u2019s central positions. Men rarely reached the Senate until they were in their 50s or 60s. The highest offices were kept beyond a man\u2019s expectable reach, in Venice, until he was old and had little time to build any power base separate from those who had elected him.<\/span><\/p>\n In Venice, the age criterion was strengthened by supplementary considerations. It was better for a doge not to have sons holding office or showing ambitions. In fact it was best to have no sons at all, who might use their father\u2019s power to increase their own. It didn\u2019t hurt, either, for a doge-elect to have outlived his wife (if any) \u2013 which meant there was often no dogaressa whose relatives could gain advantage from her connection. Other things being equal, the ideal candidate for doge would seem to have been an 80 y.o. man who had no surviving relatives, who had never married (to acquire relatives on his wife\u2019s side), and had no children who could marry into other families. Celibacy could not actually be required but the conditions was sometimes approximated.<\/span><\/p>\n There were four main stages in the checking of a doge\u2019s power \u2013 first at his election, followed closely by his renunciatory oath, then during his tenure of office, and finally in the punitive scrutiny after his death. After 1172 the election of the doge was entrusted to a committee of forty, however after a deadlocked tie at the election of 1229, the number of electors was increased from forty to forty-one. And so, the e<\/span>lection went the following way:<\/span><\/p>\n In a ceremonial formula for consulting the Venetians, when a new doge was chosen, before he took the oath of investiture he was presented to the people of Venice with the words: \u201cThis is your doge, if it please you.\u201d\u00a0This practice came to an end in 1423, after the election of Francesco Foscari<\/a>, who was presented with the unconditional statement: \u201cYour doge\u201d.\u00a0<\/span>The Doge of Venice\u2019s Oath of office (as of 1192) was: \u201cWe will consider, attend to, and work for the honor and profit of the people of Venice in good faith and without fraud\u201d.<\/span><\/p>\n Elected for life (unless forcibly removed from office),\u00a0doges had great temporal power at first, however after 1268, the doge was constantly under strict surveillance: he had to wait for other officials to be present before opening dispatches from foreign powers; he was not allowed to possess any property in a foreign land, etc. After a doge\u2019s death, a commission of inquisitori<\/i> passed judgment upon his acts, and his estate was liable to be fined for any discovered malfeasance. The official income of the doge was never large, and from early times holders of the office remained engaged in trading ventures, which kept them in touch with the requirements of the grandi<\/i>.<\/p>\n One of the ceremonial duties of the doge was to celebrate the symbolic marriage of Venice with the sea<\/a>. The ceremony, established in about 1000 A.D. to commemorate the Doge Pietro II Orseolo<\/a>\u2018s conquest of Dalmatia, was originally one of supplication<\/a> and placation, when\u00a0Ascension Day<\/a>\u00a0was chosen for\u00a0the doge to set out on his expedition. It took a form\u00a0of\u00a0a solemn procession of boats, headed by the doge\u2019s ship (from 1311 the Bucentaur<\/a>), out to sea by the Lido<\/a> port. A prayer was offered that \u201cfor us and all who sail thereon the sea may be calm and quiet\u201d, whereupon the doge and the others were solemnly aspersed<\/a> with holy water, the rest of which was thrown into the sea while the priests chanted \u201cAsperges me hyssopo, et mundabor<\/i>\u201d (\u201cSprinkle me with hyssop<\/a>, and I will be clean\u201d \u2013 Psalm 51:7). The ceremony took its later and more magnificent form after the visit of Pope Alexander III<\/a> and the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I<\/a> to Venice in 1177.\u00a0The pope drew a ring from his finger and, giving it to the doge, bade him cast such a one into the sea each year on Ascension Day, and so wed the sea. Henceforth the ceremony, instead of placatory and expiatory<\/a>, became nuptial. Every year the doge dropped a consecrated ring into the sea, and with the Latin words \u201cDesponsamus te, mare, in signum veri perpetuique domini<\/i>\u201d (\u201cWe wed thee, sea, as a sign of true and everlasting domination\u201d) declared Venice and the sea to be indissolubly one. Despite the end of the office of the doge and the destruction of the Bucentaur, the ceremony of the marriage of the sea continues to this day \u2013 it is performed by the mayor of Venice aboard a smaller ceremonial barge called the Bissona Serenissima.<\/i><\/p>\n The doge took part in ducal processions, which started in the Piazza San Marco,<\/a>\u00a0when he\u00a0would appear in the center of the procession, preceded by civil servants ranked in ascending order of prestige and followed by noble magistrates ranked in descending order of status.\u00a0Until the 15th century, the funeral service for a deceased doge would normally be held at St Mark\u2019s Basilica, where some early holders of this office are also buried. After the 15th century however, the funerals of all later doges were held at the Basilica di San Giovanni e Paolo<\/a>, and twenty-five doges are buried there.<\/p>\n Outsiders could only wonder at this mystery: the most stable government had the most kaleidoscopic system of governing. What held the whole thing together? Not any agency of government, but the single source \u2013 a compact patrician class that had a secure monopoly on all the shifting positions.<\/p>\n I brought the topic of Doge into attention in order to discuss an event that, in early 13th century, made Venice a truly imperial power \u2013 the Fourth Crusade<\/a>\u00a0 and the role old and blind\u00a0Doge Enrico Dandolo<\/a>\u00a0played in the destruction of the Byzantine Empire.\u00a0Venice was involved in the Crusades<\/a> almost from the very beginning; 200 Venetian ships assisted in capturing the coastal cities of Syria after the First Crusade<\/a>, and in 1123 they were granted virtual autonomy in the Kingdom of Jerusalem through the Pactum Warmundi<\/a><\/i>.\u00a0In 1110, Ordelafo Faliero<\/a> personally commanded a Venetian fleet of 100 ships to assist Baldwin I of Jerusalem<\/a> in capturing the city of Sidon<\/a>. In the 12th century, the republic built a large national shipyard that is now known as the Arsenal<\/a>\u00a0\u2013 this installation, toward the east of the city, was in its time the largest industrial complex in the world. At the beginning, it was still a modest eight-acre naval depot. But as the Venetian empire spread, and a high-efficiency fleet became an urgent necessity, all of the city\u2019s ship-related production activities were concentrated here behind protective walls. By the 16th century the Arsenal had grown to its present extent \u2013 60 acres (a circumference of 5 km), and it could, in a crisis, produce 50 galleys in a month, besides servicing, periodically inspecting, and repairing the ships that were Venice\u2019s muscle and bone as a world power.<\/span><\/p>\n <\/a><\/p>\n The Fourth Crusade led by Franks originally intended to conquer Muslim-controlled Jerusalem through invasion of\u00a0Egypt. Venice would provide a fleet of more than 500 galleys to carry 30,000 Crusaders, but not for less than 84,000 silver marks \u2013 approximately double the yearly income of the king of England at the time. When only one-thirds of the proposed Frankish forces turned up in Venice, it became obvious that the Crusaders would never be able to pay their debt to Venice, so their leaders made a deal to follow the orders of the cunning and manipulative Doge Dandolo instead. The fleet bypassed Egypt and went straight to its main target \u2013 the greatest city of Christendom and the richest metropolis in the world \u2013 Constantinople<\/a>, and…. sacked it in 1204. After the fall of Constantinople, the former Roman Empire was partitioned among the Latin Crusaders and the Venetians. Venice subsequently carved out a sphere of influence in the Mediterranean known as the Duchy of the Archipelago<\/a>.\u00a0When you read historical accounts, the Fourth Crusade doesn\u2019t seem\u00a0logical at all \u2013 Venice was a Byzantine city, its merchants had extensive trading routes and posts in Constantinople and the Republic was often granted a tax-free status by the Empire, however, Dandolo\u2019s greed went beyond that. He wanted all the treasures and glory to himself, at the expense of one of the supreme cities of the Christian faith. This was Dandolo\u2019s moment of fulfillment. He assumed yet another title, that of Despot, and hobbled around the city, we are told, wearing the scarlet buskins of an emperor himself. He was the true hero of the hour, the strategist of the expedition, the inspiration of the assault, the disposer of the spoils \u2013 Blind old Dandolo!<\/em> as Byron was to apostrophize him. Th\u2019octogenarian chief, Byzantium\u2019s conquering foe! <\/em>Constantinople\u2019s capture and destruction was\u00a0described as one of the most profitable and disgraceful sacks of a city in history.<\/p>\n Venetians knew exactly what they wanted from Constantinople. They took the head of St. Stephen, to go with the martyr\u2019s feel already enshrined in the monastery of San Giorgio at home, and a multitude of lesser sacred relics, with the prodigious gold, silver and enameled reliquaries which the Byzantine craftsmen had made for them: shared out among the Venetian churches, these would vastly increase the profitable allure of the city as a pilgrim port. They took a series of exquisite enameled cameos from the Pantocrator Monastery<\/a>, to make the Pala d\u2019Oro<\/a> even more magnificent, and a pair of great carved doors to make the entrance to the Basilica still more impressive. They took a few\u00a0of marble columns, floridly decorated, to enrich the Piazzetta. They took a quartet of little porphyry knights, probably Roman tetrarchs of an Augustus and a Caesar, to embellish a corner of St. Mark\u2019s. They took stones and panels from all over Constantinople, classical fragments, plinths of lost statues, streaked slabs of alabaster, to be shipped home as ballast and built into the texture of Venice.\u00a0A visitor today to Basilica di San Marco will witness much of what Dandolo sent home. Indeed, it is impossible not to see it as the church had sparse ornamentation in 1200. Today, it is encrusted with marble slabs, arches, columns, and sculptures placed in an almost haphazard fashion wherever they might fit.<\/p>\n Most deliberately of all, the Venetians snatched two supreme treasures of the city which would forever afterwards be associated with their own power and providence. The first was the miraculous icon of the Nikopoeia<\/a>, the Victory-worker: this they spirited away from the Church of the Virgin, where it made its weekly revelation, to be enshrined in a new chapel within the Basilica, and brought it forth in glory or in supplication whenever a victory had been won, or a disaster was to be averted. The second was the grand quadriga of bronze horses<\/a> from the emperor\u2019s box at the Hippodrome: from these they removed the harnesses and detached the horses\u2019 necks and heads as they couldn\u2019t transport them in one piece. The horses are a Roman copy of a Greek masterwork, and were probably cast around the time of Christ or a century or two after. In the 4th or 5th century they were moved to Constantinople, where they pulled their triumphant charioteer for centuries. We can imagine the surprise with which the Venetians unpacked this strange gift as for a few years they argued over where to place them, but finally decided on the facade of San Marco. There is no connection between neither St. Mark and horses, nor between the horses and the Piazza, however\u00a0they were to be associated always with the independence of Venice from Constantinople as from all other suzerains, never to be bridled again, but to stand side by side until the end of the Republic.<\/p>\n <\/a><\/p>\n From that day, Venice became the thief and the chief repository of Byzantine art and craftsmanship. Constantinople was left stripped of its glories. \u201cOh city, city, eye of all cities\u201d<\/em>, mourned Nicetas. \u201cThou hast drunk to the dregs the cup of the anger of the Lord\u201d. <\/em>Needless to say that when Venetian ships opted to head home loaded with booty and forgetting all about the Crusades, the Franks were left alone to struggle onwards to the Christian duty.<\/p>\n A year after the Crusade, in 1205, in his 90s by now and in the plentitude of his triumph, Dandolo died. He had never gone home to Venice\u00a0again, but of all the Doges of Venice, he remains the best-known to this day as a supreme champion to the Venetian, and an absolute rough to all philhellenes. He was\u00a0interred, of course, in St. Sophia, in a pillared sarcophagus on the south balcony. Nobody quite knows what happened to his bones when, two centuries later, Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks, and the cathedral was turned into a mosque. Some say they were thrown to the dogs, others suggest that when in 1479 the Venetian painter Gentile Bellini was fulfilling a commission from the Sultan of Turkey in Constantinople, he was allowed to take the old warrior\u2019s remains home to Venice, together with his sword and helmet. Anyway, his tombstone remains in Hagia Sophia<\/a> to this day \u2013 a plain oblong slab carved crudely with his name, so next time you are in Istanbul, make sure to stop by and kick\u00a0it, hard! He was a terrible old man but he loved his city and the city still loves him: there is a monument to him in Latin, on his modest house near the Rialto bridge, No 4172 San Marco!<\/p>\n It is true that Dandolo and his Venetians, more absolutely than anyone else, had destroyed the Byzantine civilization. The Latin Empire didn\u2019t last long, as Greek emperors were restored to the throne within half a century, and presided over a late revival of the Byzantine genius. But the city and its empire were never the same again. The spirit had gone, the heritage was dispersed, and in the 15th century, when the Turks took it in their turn, they found it half-ruined still. Greeks everywhere never forgave the Venetians, whom they regarded as the instigators of this tragedy. The Venetians themselves actually considered moving their capital to Constantinople \u2013 \u201ctruly our city\u201d, is how an official document described it \u2013 but lost their share of sovereignty there, and their patriarchate too, when the Greek emperors came back in 1261. They were not finished with the city, however. They maintained a trading colony there for two centuries more, and were to fight battles in its waters, against one enemy or another, on and off until the 17th century. But they left no monuments on the peninsula above the Golden Horn. The Venetian quarter that Dandolo acquired left no trace, the covered bazaar now called the Spice Bazaar, is on the site of the Venetian market, but not a sprocket is left, not a machicolation, to show that they were even there.<\/p>\n Having taken Constantinople for all it was worth, Venice set it sights on distant shores. Through the overland trip of native son Marco Polo<\/a> in 1271-1291, Venetian trade routes extended all the way to China. Rival Genoa\u2019s routes to the New World were proving slower to yield returns, and the impatient empire cast an envious eye on Venice\u2019s spice and silk-trade routes. In 1372 Genoa and Venice finally came to blows over an incident in Cyprus, initiating 8 years of maritime warfare that took a toll on Venice. Genoa\u2019s allies Padua and Hungary took the opportunity to seize Venetian territories on the mainland, and in 1379 a Genoese fleet appeared off the Lido. Venetian commander Carlo Zeno<\/a>\u2018s war fleet had been sent out to patrol the Mediterranean, leaving the city outflanked and outnumbered. But the Genoese made a strategic mistake: instead of invading, they attempted to starve out the city. With stores of grain saved for just such an occasion, Venice worked day and night to built new ships and defences around the islands. Venetian commander Vittore Pisani mounted a counter-attack on the Genoese fleet \u2013 but his forces were inadequate. All hope seemed lost for Venice, until ships flying the lion of St. Mark banner appeared on the horizon: Carlo Zeno had returned. Venice ousted the Genoese, exerting control over the Adriatic and a backyard that stretched from Dalmatia to Bergamo.<\/p>\n <\/a><\/p>\n As ships came and went through Venice\u2019s ports daily, carrying salt, silks, spices and an unintentional import: rats infested with fleas carrying bubonic plague<\/a>. In 1348 the city was still recovering from an earthquake that had destroyed houses and drained the Grand Canal, when the plague struck. Soon as many as 600 people were dying every day, and undertakers\u2019 barges raised the rueful cry: \u201cCorpi morti! Corpi morti!\u201d <\/em>(Bring out your dead!) Within a year, more than 50,000 Venetians died. No one was sure how the disease had spread, but Venice took an unprecedented step of appointing 3 public health officials to manage the crisis. Observing that outbreaks seemed to coincide with incoming shipments, Venice decided in 1403 to intercept all arriving on Isola di Lazzaretto Buovo. Before any ship was allowed to enter the city, it was required to undergo inspections, and its passengers had to wait for a quarantena (40-day period) while Venetian doctors monitored them for signs of plague. This was the world\u2019s first organized quarantine station, setting a precedent that saved untold lives. While the plague struck Italy\u2019s mainland as many as 50 more times before 1500, the outbreaks often seemed to miraculously bypass Venice. The city\u2019 faithful chalked up their salvation to divine intervention, and built the spectacular churches of Il Retendore<\/a> and Basilica di Santa Maria della Salute<\/a> as monumental thanks.<\/p>\n <\/a><\/p>\n Despite all, the\u00a0Venetian empire was dazzlingly cosmopolitan as Venice turned arrivals from every nation and creed into her trading partners \u2013 as long as everyone was making money, cultural boundaries need not apply. Armenians, Turks, Greeks, Germans and Persians became neighbors along the Grand Canal and Jewish and Muslim refugees and other groups, widely persecuted in Europe at that time had a chance to peacefully settled into established communities in Venice. By the late 13th century, at the peak of its power and wealth, 300 shipbuilding companies in the Arsenale had 16,000 employees and Venice had 36,000 sailors operating 3,300 ships, dominating Mediterranean commerce. It was the time when Venice\u2019s leading families vied with each other to build the grandest palaces and support the work of the greatest and most talented artists.<\/p>\n <\/a><\/p>\n By the mid-15th century, Venice\u2019s maritime ventures had left the city swathed in golden mosaics, rusting silks and incense to cover mucky summer smells that were the downsides of a lagoon empire. In case of trade disputes or feuds among neighbors, the Republic retained its calm through a complex political system of checks, balances and elections. The city was governed by the Great Council<\/a>, which was made up of members of the noble families of Venice. The Great Council appointed all public officials and elected a Senate of 200 to 300 individuals. Since this group was too large to be efficient, a Council of Ten<\/a>\u00a0presided by Doge (also called the Consiglio dei Dieci\u00a0or the Signoria), controlled much of the administration of the city. This, what many regard, shadowy secret service, thwarted conspiracies by deploying Venetian spies throughout Venice and major European capitals. Apparently, Venice had no qualms about spying on its own citizens to ensure a balance of power, and trials, torture and executions were carried out in secret. Still, compared with its neighbors at the time, Venice remained a haven of tolerance \u2013\u00a0the state was notable for its freedom from religious fanaticism and executed nobody for religious heresy during the Counter-Reformation<\/a>. This apparent lack of zeal contributed to Venice\u2019s frequent conflicts with the Papacy, which\u00a0threatened Venice with the interdict<\/a> on a number of occasions, and twice excommunicated the city (the second, most noted, occasion was in 1606, by order of Pope Paul V<\/a>.)<\/p>\n Despite Venice\u2019s role in the decline of Byzantine Empire, or the fact that Constantinople sided with Genoa against Venice \u2013 warfare wasn\u2019t enough to deter two powers from doing business with one another for centuries. Even when Constantinople fell to Ottoman rule in 1453, trade\u00a0carried on as usual and the Venetian dialect was still widely spoken across the eastern Mediterranean. After Suleiman the Magnificent\u00a0<\/a>took over Cyprus in 1571, Venice sensed its maritime power slipping, and allied with the papal states \u2013 Spain and an arch-rival Genoa \u2013 to keep the Ottoman sultan at bay. The same year a huge allied fleet (much of it provided by Venice) routed the Turks\u00a0at the battle of Lepanto<\/a> in Greece. However, it was too late to stop Ottomans from expanding their territory.<\/p>\n Legend has it that when Turkish troops took over the island of Paros,\u00a0one of the prisoners was Cecilia Venier-Baffo, who was apparently the illegitimate daughter of Venice\u2019s noble Venier family, a niece of the doge, and possibly the cousin on Sebastiano Venier (hero of the battle in Lepanto). Cecilia became the favorite wife of Sultan Salim II of Constantinople, and when he died in 1574 she took control as Sultana Nurbanu<\/a> (Princess of Light). The regent of Sultan Murad III, she was a faithful pen pal of Queen Elizabeth I of Britain and Catherine de Medici of France. According to historian Alberto Toso Fei, the Sultana\u2019s policies were so favorable to Venetian interests that the Venetian senate set aside special funds to fulfill her wishes for Venetian specialties \u2013 from lapdogs to golden cushions. Genoa wasn\u2019t so thrilled by her favoritism, and in 1582 Sultana was poisoned by Genoese assassins.<\/p>\n In the end, if the Venetians needed Islam, Islam didn\u2019t greatly need Venice, and in four fierce wars and innumerable skirmishes the Turks gradually whittled away the republic\u2019s eastern possessions. One by one the colonies fell, until at the moment of Venice\u2019s own extinction as a state, in 1797, she had nothing much left but the Ionian Islands, off the coast of Greece, and a few footholds on the eastern shore of the Adriatic \u2013 properties useless to her anyway by then, except as reminders of the glorious past. World was changing as well.\u00a0Christopher Columbus discovered the New World in 1492. Then Vasco da Gama of Portugal found a sea route to India by rounding the Cape of Good Hope during his first voyage of 1497\u201399, destroying Venice\u2019s land route monopoly. France, England and the Dutch Republic followed. Venice\u2019s oared galleys were at a disadvantage when it came to traversing the great oceans, and therefore Venice was left behind in the race for colonies.<\/p>\n While many European city-states continued to plot against one another, they were increasingly eclipsed by marriages cementing alliances among France, England and the Habsburg Empire. As it lost ground to these nations and the seas to pirates and Ottomans, Venice took a different tack, and began conquering Europe by charm. Venice\u2019s star attraction were its parties, music, women and art. Nunneries in Venice (where nuns admitted male \u201cclients\u201d) held soirees to rival those in its ridotti<\/em> (casinos), and Carnevale lasted up to 3 months. Claudio Monteverdi<\/a> was hired as choir director of San Marco in 1613, introducing multi-part harmonies and historical operas with crowd-pleasing tragicomic scenes. Monteverdi\u2019s modern opera caught on: by the end of the 17th century, Venice\u2019s season included as many as 30 operas, 10 of which were usually brand new composed for Venetian venues.<\/p>\n New orchestras required musicians, but Venice came up with a ready workforce: orphan girls. Circumstances had conspired to produce an unprecedented number of Venetian orphans: on the one hand were plague and snake-oil cures, and on the other were scandalous masquerade parties and flourishing prostitution. Funds poured in from anonymous donors to support ospedaletti\u00a0<\/em>(orphanages), and the great baroque composers\u00a0Antonio Vivaldi <\/a>and Domenico Cimarosa were hired to lead orphan orchestras. Socialites began gifting snuffboxes and portraits painted by Venetian artists as fashionable tokens of their esteem, and salon habitues across Europe became accustomed to mythological and biblical themes painted in luminous Venetian colors, with the unmistakable city on the water as a backdrop. On baroque church ceilings across Venice, frescoed angels play heavenly music on lutes and trumpets \u2013 instruments officially banned from churches by Rome. Venetian art became incredibly daring, with Titian<\/a> and Veronese<\/a> bringing voluptuous red colors and sly social commentary to familiar religious subjects.<\/p>\n With maritime trade revenues dipping and the value of the Venetian ducat slipping in the 16th century, Venice\u2019s fleshpots brought in far too much valuable foreign currency to be outlawed. Instead, Venice opted for regulation and taxation. Rather than baring all in the rough-and-ready streets around the Rialto, prostitutes could only display their wares from the waist up in windows, or sit bare-legged on windowsills. Venice decreed that to distinguish themselves from noblewomen who increasingly dressed like them, ladies of the night should ride in gondolas with red lights. By the end of the 16th century, the town was flush with some 12,000 registered prostitutes, creating a literal red-light district. Today, red beacons don\u2019t mean much but you can still enjoy a decadent dinner at Antiche Carampane<\/a> (Old Streetwalkers) near Ponte della Tette (Bridge of the Tits<\/a>).<\/p>\n Beyond red lights ringing the Rialto, 16th to 18th century visitors encountered broad grey areas in Venetian social mores. Far from being shunned by polite society, Venice\u2019s \u201chonest courtesans\u201d became widely admired as poets, musicians and taste makers. As free-spirited, financially independent Venetian women took lovers and accepted lavish gift from admirers, there became a certain fluidity surrounding the definition of a cortigiana<\/em> (courtesan). During winter masquerades and Carnevale, Venice\u2019s nobility regularly escaped the tedium of salons and official duties under masks and cloaks, generating enough gossip to last until the summer social season in Riviera Brenta villas provided fresh scandals.\u00a0By the 18th century, less than 40% of Venetian nobles bothered with the formality of marriage, and regularity of Venetian marriage annulments scandalized even visiting French courtiers.<\/p>\n In January 1789 Lodovico Manin<\/a>, from a recently ennobled mainland family, was elected doge, as it would turn out \u2013 the last one! The expenses of the election had grown throughout the 18th century, and now reached their highest ever. The patrician Pietro Gradenigo remarked: \u201cI have made a Friulian doge; the Republic is dead.\u201d\u00a0<\/em>C. P. Snow<\/a> suggests that in the last half century of the republic, the Venetians knew that the current of history had begun to flow against them, and that to keep going would require breaking the pattern into which they had crystallized. Yet they never found the will to break it.\u00a0By the year 1792, the once great Venetian merchant fleet had declined to a mere 309 merchantmen.<\/p>\n When Napoleon<\/a>\u00a0arrived in 1797, Venice had been reduced by plague and circumstances from 175,000 to fewer than 100,000 people. Even though, Venice declared its neutrality in the war between France and Austria, it didn\u2019t stop Napoleon, who with a claim, \u201cI want no more Inquisition, no more Senate; I shall be an Attila to the state of Venice\u201d,<\/em>\u00a0entered\u00a0the city.<\/em> Venetian warships managed to deter one French ships by the Lido, but when Napoleon made it clear he intended to destroy the city if it resisted, the Maggior Cosiglio (Grand Council) decreed the end of the Republic. The doge reportedly doffed the signature cap of his office with a sign, saying, \u201cI won\u2019t be needing this anymore\u201d.\u00a0<\/em>Though Napoleon only controlled Venice sporadically for a total of 11 years, the impact of his reign is still visible. He grabbed any Venetian art masterpiece that wasn\u2019t nailed down, and displaced religious orders to make room for museums and trophy galleries in the\u00a0Gallerie dell\u2019Accademia<\/a>\u00a0 and Museo Correr<\/a>. Napoleon\u2019s city planners lifted remaining restrictions on the Jewish Ghetto, filled the canals and widen city streets to facilitate movement of troops and loot.<\/p>\n When Napoleon lost control of Venice in 1814, Austria had grand plans for it \u2013 locals were obliged to house Austrian solders, who spent off-duty hours carousing with bullfights, beer and their new happy-hour invention \u2013 the spritz<\/a> (a Prosecco and bitters cocktail). Finding their way back home afterwards was a challenge in Venetian calli (alleyways), so the Austrians implemented a street-numbering system. To bring in reinforcements and supplies, they dredged and deepened entranced to the lagoon and began a train bridge in 1841. Under the Austrians, the population of Venice fell from 138,000 to 99,000. When a young lawyer Daniele Manin<\/a> suggested reforms to Venice\u2019s puppet government in 1848, he was tossed into prison \u2013 sparkling a popular uprising against the Austrians that would last 17 months. Austria responded by bombarding and blockading the city and in July, it began a 24-day artillery bombardment, raining some 23,000 shells down on the city and its increasingly famished and cholera-stricken populace, until Manin finally managed to negotiate a surrender to Austria with a guarantee of no reprisal. Yet the indignity of Austria\u2019s suppression continued to fester, and when presented with the option in 1866, the people of Venice and the Veneto voted to join the new independent kingdom of Italy<\/a> under King Vittorio Emanuele II.<\/p>\n Glamorous Venice gradually took on a workday aspect in the 19th century, with factories springing up on Giudecca and around Mestre and Padua, and textiles industries setting up shops around Vicenza and Treviso. When Mussolini<\/a> rose to power after WWI, he was determined to turn the Veneto into a modern industrial powerhouse and a model Fascist society. Venice emerged relatively unscathed from WWII, however the mass deportation of the city\u2019s historic Jewish population in 1943 shook Venice to its very moorings. When the Veneto began to rebound after the war, many Venetians left for the mainland, Milan and other economic centers. Recent demographical studies indicate that only 55,000 people live in the historic city of Venice which spread out across a group of 118 small islands. Today\u2019s Venice traditions are upheld by art institutions such as La Fenice, Goldoni Theater, The Biennale and a dozen world-class museums. Venice\u2019s admirers have been the heroes of its story many times, not only funding vital restorations after the devastating flood of 1966 (Save Venice Inc<\/a>), but also filling its concert halls and galleries, keeping its signature arts and crafts traditions alive and providing a steady stream of outside inspiration.<\/p>\n I would like to end the history of Venice with the sonnet of Wordsworth \u201cOn the Extinction of the Venetian Republic\u201d:<\/em><\/p>\n <\/p>\n Don\u2019t expect to have the city to yourself. Even in February, Venice has its admirers. More accessible than ever and surprisingly affordable given its singularity, Venice remains a self-selecting city: it takes a certain bravery\u00a0to forgo the convenience of cars and highways for slow boats and crooked calli. However, lack of traffic was something my husband found very relaxing\u00a0and refreshing. There is a chance that the fellow travelers share the same passions for art, music, history, architecture, food and drink, since Venice really isn\u2019t big on business conventions, nightclubs or extreme sports (unless you include glass-shopping).<\/p>\n If you are coming in winter, like us, make sure to bring comfortable and water-resistant shoes (I went for a pair of Aqua Italia<\/a> boots). If your visit falls on the Carnevale, don\u2019t forget to book tickets for a traditional Venetian Masquerade Ball or at least acquire a costume and proudly parade it on Piazza San Marco. A good paper map or an app, combined with an excellent sense of direction are must, but even then I ran into the\u00a0city\u2019s resistance to allow me to locate, and sometimes, reach my destination. While packing, make sure to bring only the most important and necessary items as you most likely will end up hauling your luggage through narrow alleyways and multiple bridges from vaporetto (water-bus) stop to your hotel and back. Otherwise, keep your camera ready, your eyes wide open\u2026 and always remember to turn around!<\/p>\n Logistics.<\/strong><\/p>\n Before leaving for Venice, I pre-booked online the tickets to AliLaguna<\/a>\u00a0\u2013 a public water bus servicing airport with the rest of Venice (\u20ac25 round trip, \u20ac16 \u2013 one way). So after landing at the\u00a0Marco Polo airport<\/a>, we received our tickets at the AliLaguna booth and boarded a blue line to Piazza San Marco stop \u2013 about 90 minutes away. During our stay, we used Vaporetto<\/strong> just a few times, #1 and #2 to travel along the city\u2019s main thoroughfare, the Grand Canal, which perhaps is the best way to get acquainted with\u00a0Venice, its palaces and remarkable life-on-the-water. On one occasion I took vaporetto #4.2 to travel to Cimitero San Michele (St. Michel cemetery) and on the way back, it took me around all of Venice, giving me yet another understanding of the fact, that the city was indeed built on multiple islands.<\/p>\n <\/a><\/p>\n We split out 10 day stay into two hotels. The first one, Hotel Violino d\u2019Oro<\/a>, <\/strong>is a boutique hotel\u00a0situated in a restored 18th century Palazzo Barozzi\u00a0on a small campiello (square with a marble fountain). Conveniently located (just one bridge to cross), this very comfortable and moderately-priced hotel is just 5 minutes walk\u00a0from Piazza San Marco. The room was small, like everywhere in Venice, but handsomely furnished. Service was friendly and very accommodating (concierge flawlessly arranged a delivery of our rented costumes from the shop to our room). During the last Saturday of the Carnevale all guests received an invitation to join the masked soiree. It took place in the hotel\u2019s restaurant where for several hours the guests were served cheese, petit-fours, unlimited Prosecco and were entertained by musicians. P.S. Masks were provided gratis and we got to keep them too. I would definitely recommend this hotel.<\/p>\n <\/a><\/p>\n\n
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